Arctic Fronts

 

Wexler, H., 1936: Cooling of the lower atmosphere and the structure of polar continental air. Mon. Wea. Rev., 64, 122-136.  

Colle, B. A., and C. F. Mass, 1995: The structure and evolution of cold surges east of the Rocky Mountains. Mon. Wea. Rev., 123, 2577–2610.

Wang, P. Y., J. E. Martin, J. D. Locatelli, and P. V. Hobbs, 1995: Structure and evolution of winter cyclones in the Central United States and their effects on the distribution of precipitation. Part II: Arctic fronts. Mon. Wea. Rev., 123, 1328-1344.  

Miller, L. Jay, M. A. LeMone, W. Blumen, R. L. Grossman, N. Gamage, and R. J. Zamora, 1996: The low-level structure and evolution of a dry arctic front over the Central United States. Part I: Mesoscale observations. Mon. Wea. Rev., 124,1648–1675.

Weisman, R. A., 1996: The Fargo snowstorm of 6–8 January 1989. Wea. and Forecasting, 11,198–215.

Rauber, R. M., L. S. Olthoff, M. K. Ramamurthy, D. Miller, and K.  E. Kunkel, 2001: A synoptic weather pattern and sounding-based climatology of freezing precipitation in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. J. of App. Meteor., 40, 1724–1747.

 

Cold Fronts Aloft (Prior to 1955)

 

Holzman,  B., 1936: Synoptic determination and forecasting significance of cold fronts. Mon Wea. Rev., 64, 400–413.

Lichtblau, S., 1936: Upper cold fronts in North America. Mon. Wea. Rev., 64, 414–425.

Lloyd, J. R., 1942: The development and trajectories of tornadoes. Mon. Wea. Rev., 70, 65–75.  

Showalter, A. K., and J. R. Fulks, 1943: Preliminary report on tornadoes. U. S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau, War Advisory Council on Meteorology, Restricted Report No. 1110, 162 pp.  

Crawford, M. E., 1950: A synoptic study of squall lines. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc, 31, 351-357.  

Armstrong, H.,1953: Forecasting of tornadoes in Georgia.  Mon. Wea. Rev., 81, 290-298.  

Williams, D. T., 1953: Pressure wave observations in the Central Midwest,1952, Mon. Wea. Rev., 81, 278-289.  

Lott, G. A., 1954: The world-record 42-minute Holt, Missouri, rainstorm.  Mon. Wea. Rev., 82, 50–59.  

    Cold Fronts Aloft (1955-1989)

 

Fujita, T., 1958: The structure and movement of a dry front. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 39, 574–582.

Omoto, Y., 1965: On pre-frontal precipitation zones in the United States. J. Met. Soc. Japan, 43, 310-330.  

Danielsen, E. F., 1975: The relationship between severe weather, major dust storms and rapid large-scale cyclogenesis, Parts I and II. Subsynoptic Extratropical Weather Systems: Observations, Analysis, Modeling, and Prediction; Notes From a Colloquium: Summer 1974, Vol. II. National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO.  

Browning, K. A., 1985: Conceptual models of precipitation systems.  Meteor. Mag., 114, 293-319.

 

 

Cold Front Aloft (1989-present)

 

Locatelli, J. D., J. M. Sienkiewicz, and P. V. Hobbs, 1989: Organization and structure of clouds and precipitation on the mid-Atlantic coast of the United States. Part I: Synoptic evolution of a frontal system from the Rockies to the Atlantic Coast. J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 1327–1348.  

Sienkiewicz, J. M., J. D. Locatelli, P. V. Hobbs, and B. Geerts, 1989: Organization and structure of clouds and precipitation on the mid-Atlantic coast of the United States. Part II: The mesoscale and microscale structure of some frontal rainbands. J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 1349–1364.  

Martin, J. E., J. D. Locatelli, and P. V. Hobbs, 1990: Organization and structure of clouds and precipitation on the mid-Atlantic coast of the United States. Part III: The evolution of a middle-tropospheric cold front. Mon. Wea. Rev., 118, 195–217.  

Hobbs, P. V., J. D. Locatelli, and J. E. Martin, 1990: Cold fronts aloft and the forecasting of precipitation and severe weather east of the Rocky Mountains. Wea. and Forecasting, 5, 613–626.  

Businger, S., W. H.Bauman, and G. F. Watson, 1991: The development of the Piedmont front and associated outbreak of severe weather on 13 March 1986. Mon. Wea. Rev., 119, 2224-2251.  

Locatelli, J. D., and P. V. Hobbs, 1995: A world record rainfall rate at Holt, Missouri: Was it due to cold frontogenesis aloft? Wea. and Forecasting, 10, 779-785.

Locatelli, J. D., J. E. Martin, J. A. Castle, and P. V. Hobbs, 1995: Structure and evolution of winter cyclones in the Central United States and their effects on the distribution of precipitation. Part III: The development of a squall line associated with weak cold-frontogenesis aloft. Mon. Wea. Rev., 123, 2641-2662.  

Businger, S., S. R. Chiswell, M. Bevis, J. Duan, R. A. Anthes, C. Rocken, R. H. Ware, M. Exner, T. VanHove, and Fredrick S. Solheim, 1996: The promise of GPS in atmospheric monitoring. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 77, 53-70.

Hobbs, P. V., J. D. Locatelli, and J. E. Martin, 1996: A new conceptual model for cyclones generated in the lee of the Rocky Mountains. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 77, 1169-1178.

Locatelli, J. D., M. T. Stoelinga, and P. V. Hobbs, 1998: Structure and evolution of winter cyclones in the Central United States and their effects on the distribution of precipitation. Part V: Thermodynamic and dual-Doppler radar analysis of a squall line associated with a cold front aloft. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 860-875.  

Neiman, P. J., F. M. Ralph, M. A. Shapiro, B. F. Smull, and D Johnson, 1998: An observational study of  fronts and frontal mergers over the continental United States. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 2521-2554.  

Neiman, P. J., and R. M. Wakimoto, 1999: The interaction of a Pacific cold front with  shallow masses east of the Rocky Mountains. Mon. Wea. Rev., 127, 2102-2127.

Stoelinga, M. T., J. D. Locatelli, and P. V. Hobbs, 2000: Structure and evolution of winter cyclones in the Central United States and their effects on the distribution of precipitation. Part VI: A multiscale numerical modeling study of the initiation of convective rainbands. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128, 3481-3500. 

Locatelli, J. D., M. T. Stoelinga, and P. V. Hobbs, 2002: A new look at the super outbreak of tornadoes on 3-4 April 1974.  Mon. Wea. Rev., 130, 1633–1651. 

Locatelli, J. D., R. D. Schwartz, M. T. Stoelinga, and P. V. Hobbs, 2002: Norwegian-type and CFA-type cyclones east of the Rocky Mountains.  Wea. and Forecasting, 17, 66–82.

Rose, S. F., P. V. Hobbs, J. D. Locatelli, and M. T. Stoelinga, 2002: Use of a mesoscale model to forecast severe weather associated with a cold front aloft. Wea. and Forecasting, 17, 755–773

 

 

Surface Convergence Induced by Cold Fronts Aloft  

 

Matejka, T. J., 1980: Mesoscale organization of cloud processes in extratropical cyclones. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Washington, 361 pp.  

Locatelli, J. D., M. T. Stoelinga, R. D. Schwartz, and P. V. Hobbs, 1997: Surface convergence induced by cold fronts aloft and prefrontal surges. Mon. Wea. Rev., 125, 2808-2820.  

Stoelinga, Mark T., John D. Locatelli, Ralph D. Schwartz, Peter V. Hobbs, 2003: Is a cold pool necessary for the maintenance of a squall line produced by a cold front aloft?  Mon. Wea. Rev., 131, 95–115.  

 

Cold Pools in Cold Front Aloft Squall Lines

 

Stoelinga, Mark T., John D. Locatelli, Ralph D. Schwartz, Peter V. Hobbs, 2003: Is a cold pool necessary for the maintenance of a squall line produced by a cold front aloft?  Mon. Wea. Rev., 131, 95–115.  

  Destabilization of Cold Air Over the Rocky Mountain High Plateaus

 

Danielsen, E. F., 1975: The relationship between severe weather, major dust storms and rapid large-scale cyclogenesis, Parts I and II. Subsynoptic Extratropical Weather Systems: Observations, Analysis, Modeling, and Prediction; Notes From a Colloquium: Summer 1974, Vol. II. National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO.  

Locatelli, J. D., M. T. Stoelinga, and P. V. Hobbs, 2002: A new look at the super outbreak of tornadoes on 3-4 April 1974.  Mon. Wea. Rev., 130, 1633–1651.

Stoelinga, M. T., J. D. Locatelli, and P. V. Hobbs, 2002: Warm occlusions, cold occlusions, and forward-tilting cold fronts. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 83, 709–721.  

Dryline

 

McGuire, E. L., 1960: The vertical structure of three drylines as revealed by aircraft traverses. Paper presented at 1st AMS Conference on Severe Local Storms; also published in 1962 as National Severe Storms Project Report, No. 7 , Kansas City, Mo., 11 pp.  

Schaefer, J. T., 1974: The life cycle of the dryline. J. Appl. Meteor., 13, 444–449.  

McCarthy, J. and S. E. Koch, 1982: The evolution of an Oklahoma dryline. Part I: A meso- and subsynoptic-scale analysis. J. Atmos. Sci., 39, 225–236.  

Schaefer, J. T., 1986: The Dryline. In Mesoscale Meteorology and Forecasting, Amer. Meteor. Soc., P. Ray, Ed., 549–570.

Parsons, D. B., M. A. Shapiro, R. M. Hardesty, R. J. Zamora, and J. M. Intrieri, 1991: The finescale structure of a West Texas dryline. Mon. Wea. Rev., 119, 1242–1258.

Crawford, T. M., and H. B. Bluestein, 1997: Characteristics of dryline passage during COPS-91. Mon. Wea. Rev., 125, 463–477.

Shaw, B. L., R. A. Pielke, and C. L. Ziegler, 1997: A three-dimensional numerical simulation of a Great Plains dryline. Mon.Wea. Rev.,125, 1489–1506.

Atkins, N. T., R. M. Wakimoto, and C. L. Ziegler, 1998: Observations of the finescale structure of a dryline during VORTEX 95. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 525–550.

Parsons, D. B., M. A. Shapiro, and E. Miller, 2000: The mesoscale structure of a nocturnal dryline and of a frontal–dryline merger. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128, 3824–3838.

Hane, C. E., R. M. Rabin, T. M. Crawford, H. B. Bluestein, and M. E. Baldwin, 2002: A case study of severe storm development along a dryline within a synoptically active environment. Part II: Multiple boundaries and convective initiation. Mon. Wea. Rev.,130, 900–920.

    

Frontal Scale Lifting  

Stoelinga, M. T., J. D. Locatelli, and P. V. Hobbs, 2000: Structure and evolution of winter cyclones in the Central United States and their effects on the distribution of precipitation. Part VI: A multiscale numerical modeling study of the initiation of convective rainbands. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128, 3481-3500. 

Locatelli, John D., Mark T. Stoelinga, Peter V. Hobbs, 2002: Organization and structure of clouds and precipitation on the Mid-Atlantic Coast of the United States. Part VII: Diagnosis of a nonconvective rainband associated with a cold front aloft. Mon. Wea. Rev., 130, 278–297.  

 

Lifting Necessary to Trigger Cold Front Aloft Squall Lines

Stoelinga, M. T., J. D. Locatelli, and P. V. Hobbs, 2000: Structure and evolution of winter cyclones in the Central United States and their effects on the distribution of precipitation. Part VI: A multiscale numerical modeling study of the initiation of convective rainbands. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128, 3481-3500. 

 

Rocky Mountain Lee Troughs

 

Carlson, T. N., 1961: Lee side frontogenesis in the Rocky Mountains. Mon. Wea. Rev., 89, 163–172.

Carlson, T. N., S. G. Benjamin, and G. S. Forbes, 1983: Elevated mixed layers in the regional severe storm environment: Conceptual model and case studies. Mon. Wea. Rev., 111, 1453–1473.  

Steenburgh, W. J. and C. F. Mass, 1994: The structure and evolution of a simulated Rocky Mountain lee trough. Mon. Wea. Rev., 122, 2740-2761.  

Martin, J. E., J. D. Locatelli, P. V. Hobbs, P.-Y. Wang, and J. A. Castle, 1995: Structure and evolution of winter cyclones in the Central United States and their effects on the distribution of precipitation. Part I: A synoptic-scale rainband associated with a dryline and lee trough. Mon. Wea. Rev., 123, 241-264.

Castle, J. A., J. D. Locatelli, J. E. Martin, and P. V. Hobbs, 1996: Structure and evolution of winter cyclones in the Central United States and their effects on the'distribution of precipitation. Part IV: The evolution of a drytrough on 8-9 March 1992. Mon. Wea. Rev., 124, 1591-1595.  

Bluestein, H. B., and T. M. Crawford, 1997: Mesoscale dynamics of the near-dryline environment: Analysis of data from COPS-91. Mon. Wea. Rev., 125, 2161–2175.

Hutchinson, T. A., and H. B. Bluestein, 1998: Prefrontal wind-shift lines in the plains of the United States. Mon. Wea. Rev.,126, 141–166.

Schultz, D. M., and C. A. Doswell, 2000: Analyzing and forecasting Rocky Mountain lee cyclogenesis often associated with strong winds. Wea. and Forecasting, 15, 152–173.

Stoelinga, M. T., J. D. Locatelli, and P. V. Hobbs, 2000: Structure and evolution of winter cyclones in the Central United States and their effects on the distribution of precipitation. Part VI: A multiscale numerical modeling study of the initiation of convective rainbands. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128, 3481-3500.  

   

Self-Propagating Squall Lines

 

Newton, C. W., 1950:  Structure and mechanisms of the prefrontal squall line.  J. Meteor., 7, 210-222.

Thorpe, A. J., M. J. Miller, and M. W. Moncrieff, 1982: Two-dimensional convection in nonconstant shear: A model of mid-latitude squall lines. Quart. J. Roy.  Meteor, Soc., 108, 739-762.

Rotunno, R., J. B. Klemp, and M. L. Weisman, 1988: A theory for strong, long-lived squall lines. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 463-485.

Weisman, M. L., Klemp, J. B., and R. Rotunno, 1988: Structure and evolution of numerically simulated squall lines. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 1990-2013.  

Fankhouser, J. C., G. M. Barnes, and M. A. LeMone, 1992: Structure of a midlatitude squall line formed in strong unidirectional shear. Mon. Wea. Rev., 120, 237-260.

 

The 3-4 April 1974 Super Outbreak of Tornadoes

 

Agee, E., C. Church, C. Morris, and J. Snow, 1975: Some synoptic aspects and dynamic features of vortices associated with the tornado outbreak of 3 April 1974, Mon. Wea. Rev., 103, 318-333.

Hoxit, L. R., and C. F. Chappell, 1975: Tornado outbreak of April 3-4, 1974: Synoptic analysis. NOAA Technical Report ERL 338-APCL 37. 48 pp.  

Forbes, G. S., Three scales of motion associated with tornadoes, NUREG/CR-0363, U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, D. C.,359 pp.  

Abbey, R. F., and T. T. Fujita, 1983:Tornadoes: The tornado outbreak of 3-4 April 1974. The Thunderstorm in Human Affairs, E. Kessler, Ed., University of Oklahoma Press, 37-66.

Locatelli, J. D., M. T. Stoelinga, and P. V. Hobbs, 2002: A new look at the super outbreak of tornadoes on 3-4 April 1974.  Mon. Wea. Rev., 130, 1633–1651.

     

The Static Stability Rule

Danielsen, E. F., 1975: The relationship between severe weather, major dust storms and rapid large-scale cyclogenesis, Parts I and II. Subsynoptic Extratropical Weather Systems: Observations, Analysis, Modeling, and Prediction; Notes From a Colloquium: Summer 1974, Vol. II. National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO.

Stoelinga, M. T., J. D. Locatelli, and P. V. Hobbs, 2002: Warm occlusions, cold occlusions, and forward-tilting cold fronts. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 83, 709–721.

 

The Storm of 8-11 March 1992

 

Locatelli, J. D., J. E. Martin, J. A. Castle, and P. V. Hobbs, 1995: Structure and evolution of winter cyclones in the Central United States and their effects on the distribution of precipitation. Part III: The development of a squall line associated with weak cold-frontogenesis aloft. Mon. Wea. Rev., 123, 2641-2662.  

Castle, J. A., J. D. Locatelli, J. E. Martin, and P. V. Hobbs, 1996: Structure and evolution of winter cyclones in the Central United States and their effects on the distribution of precipitation. Part IV: The evolution of a drytrough on 8-9 March 1992. Mon. Wea. Rev., 124, 1591-1595.  

Miller, L. Jay, M. A. LeMone, W. Blumen, R. L. Grossman, N. Gamage, and R. J. Zamora, 1996: The low-level structure and evolution of a dry arctic front over the Central United States. Part I: Mesoscale observations. Mon. Wea. Rev., 124, 1648–1675.

Locatelli, J. D., M. T. Stoelinga, and P. V. Hobbs, 1998: Structure and evolution of winter cyclones in the Central United States and their effects on the distribution of precipitation. Part V: Thermodynamic and dual-Doppler radar analysis of a squall line associated with a cold front aloft. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 860-875.

Neiman, P. J., F. M. Ralph, M. A. Shapiro, B. F. Smull, and D. Johnson, 1998: An observational study of  fronts and frontal mergers over the continental United States. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 2521-25

Koch, S. E., and L. M. Siedlarz, 1999: Mesoscale gravity waves and their environment in the Central United States during STORM-FEST. Mon. Wea. Rev., 127, 2854-2879.